Difference between revisions of "Paper"

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[[File:Various products made from paper.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|Paper products: [[Book]], [[tissue paper]], [[Ruled paper]], [[carton]], egg box]]
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[[File:Various products made from paper.JPG|thumb|upright=1.4|Paper products: [[Book]], tissue paper, Ruled paper, carton, egg box]]
  
  
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'''Paper''' is a thin material produced by pressing together moist [[fibre]]s of [[cellulose]] pulp derived from [[wood]], [[Textile|rags]] or [[poaceae|grass]]es, and drying them into flexible sheets.
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'''Paper''' is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets.
 
It is a versatile material with many uses, including [[writing]], [[printing]], packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial and construction processes.
 
It is a versatile material with many uses, including [[writing]], [[printing]], packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial and construction processes.
  
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The pulp papermaking process is said to have been developed in [[China]] during the early 2nd century CE, possibly as early as the year 105 CE,<ref>Hogben, Lancelot. "Printing, Paper and Playing Cards". Bennett, Paul A. (ed.) ''Books and Printing: A Treasury for Typophiles''. New York: The World Publishing Company, 1951. pp. 15–31. p. 17. & Mann, George. ''Print: A Manual for Librarians and Students Describing in Detail the History, Methods, and Applications of Printing and Paper Making''. London: Grafton & Co., 1952. p. 77</ref> by the Han court eunuch [[Cai Lun]], although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BCE in China.<ref name="Tsien1985">{{harvnb|Tsien|1985|p=38}}</ref>
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The pulp papermaking process is said to have been developed in China during the early 2nd century CE, possibly as early as the year 105 CE,<ref>Hogben, Lancelot. "Printing, Paper and Playing Cards". Bennett, Paul A. (ed.) ''Books and Printing: A Treasury for Typophiles''. New York: The World Publishing Company, 1951. pp. 15–31. p. 17. & Mann, George. ''Print: A Manual for Librarians and Students Describing in Detail the History, Methods, and Applications of Printing and Paper Making''. London: Grafton & Co., 1952. p. 77</ref> by the Han court eunuch [[Cai Lun]], although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BCE in China.<ref name="Tsien1985">{{harvnb|Tsien|1985|p=38}}</ref>
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The modern [[pulp and paper industry]] is global, with China leading its production and the United States right behind it.
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The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production and the United States right behind it.
  
 
==History==
 
==History==
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{{Main|History of paper}}
 
 
[[File:Chinese hemp paper western han.jpg|thumb|Hemp [[wrapping paper]], China, circa 100 BC.]]
 
[[File:Chinese hemp paper western han.jpg|thumb|Hemp [[wrapping paper]], China, circa 100 BC.]]
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The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BCE in [[China]]. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to [[Cai Lun]], a 2nd-century CE Han court eunuch.<ref name="Tsien1985" />  
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The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BCE in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to [[Cai Lun]], a 2nd-century CE Han court eunuch.<ref name="Tsien1985" />
  
 
Its knowledge and uses spread from China through the Middle East to medieval Europe in the 13th century, where the first water powered [[paper mill]]s were built.<ref name="Burns 1996, 417f.">{{harvnb|Burns|1996|pp=417f.}}</ref> Because of paper's introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called ''bagdatikos''.<ref>Murray, Stuart A. P. ''The Library: An illustrated History''. Skyhorse Publishing, 2009, p. 57.</ref>
 
Its knowledge and uses spread from China through the Middle East to medieval Europe in the 13th century, where the first water powered [[paper mill]]s were built.<ref name="Burns 1996, 417f.">{{harvnb|Burns|1996|pp=417f.}}</ref> Because of paper's introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called ''bagdatikos''.<ref>Murray, Stuart A. P. ''The Library: An illustrated History''. Skyhorse Publishing, 2009, p. 57.</ref>
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In the 19th century, industrialization greatly reduced the cost of manufacturing paper. In 1844, the Canadian inventor [[Charles Fenerty]] and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.charlesfenerty.ca/book.html|title=Charles Fenerty and his paper invention|last=Burger|first=Peter|date=2007|publisher=Peter Burger|location=Toronto|isbn=9780978331818|oclc=173248586|pages=25–30}}</ref>
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In the 19th century, industrialization greatly reduced the cost of manufacturing paper. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.charlesfenerty.ca/book.html|title=Charles Fenerty and his paper invention|last=Burger|first=Peter|date=2007|publisher=Peter Burger|location=Toronto|isbn=9780978331818|oclc=173248586|pages=25–30}}</ref>
  
 
==Early sources of fibre==
 
==Early sources of fibre==
 
[[File:ANCIENT_SANSKRIT_ON_HEMP_BASED_PAPER._HEMP_WAS_A_COMMON_AND_DURABLE_FIBRE_IN_THE_PRODUCTION_OF_%22RAG%22_PAPER_FROM_200_BCE_TO_THE_1850_AD.jpg|right|thumb|Ancient Sanskrit on Hemp based Paper. Hemp Fibre was commonly used in the production of paper from 200 BCE to the Late 1800's.]]
 
[[File:ANCIENT_SANSKRIT_ON_HEMP_BASED_PAPER._HEMP_WAS_A_COMMON_AND_DURABLE_FIBRE_IN_THE_PRODUCTION_OF_%22RAG%22_PAPER_FROM_200_BCE_TO_THE_1850_AD.jpg|right|thumb|Ancient Sanskrit on Hemp based Paper. Hemp Fibre was commonly used in the production of paper from 200 BCE to the Late 1800's.]]
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{{see also|wood pulp|deinking}}
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Before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton.<ref name=PST1>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/247670296|title=Recycling fiber and deinking|last=Göttsching|first=Lothar|last2=Gullichsen|first2=Johan|last3=Pakarinen|first3=Heikki|last4=Paulapuro|first4=Hannu|last5=Yhdistys|first5=Suomen Paperi-Insinöörien|author6=Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry|date=2000|publisher=Fapet Oy|location=Finland|isbn=9525216071|oclc=247670296|pages=12–14}}</ref> A process for removing printing inks from [[recycled paper]] was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774.<ref name=PST1 /> Today this method is called deinking. It was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers.<ref name=PST1 />
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Before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from [[hemp]], [[linen]] and [[cotton]].<ref name=PST1>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/247670296|title=Recycling fiber and deinking|last=Göttsching|first=Lothar|last2=Gullichsen|first2=Johan|last3=Pakarinen|first3=Heikki|last4=Paulapuro|first4=Hannu|last5=Yhdistys|first5=Suomen Paperi-Insinöörien|author6=Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry|date=2000|publisher=Fapet Oy|location=Finland|isbn=9525216071|oclc=247670296|pages=12–14}}</ref> A process for removing printing inks from [[recycled paper]] was invented by German jurist [[Justus Claproth]] in 1774.<ref name=PST1 /> Today this method is called [[deinking]]. It was not until the introduction of [[wood pulp]] in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from [[ragpicker]]s.<ref name=PST1 />
 
  
 
==Etymology==
 
==Etymology==
 
{{Further|Papyrus}}
 
{{Further|Papyrus}}
  
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The word "paper" is etymologically derived from [[Latin]] ''papyrus'', which comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] πάπυρος (''papuros''), the word for the ''[[Cyperus papyrus]]'' plant.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpa%2Fpuros πάπυρος], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref><ref>[http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/papyrus#DWS-m-en_gb-msdict-00002%E2%80%93049928 papyrus], on Oxford Dictionaries</ref> [[Papyrus]] is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the ''Cyperus papyrus'' plant, which was used in [[ancient Egypt]] and other [[History of the Mediterranean region|Mediterranean]] cultures for [[History of writing|writing]] before the introduction of paper into the Middle East and Europe.<ref>{{Cite Dictionary.com|papyrus|accessdate=20 November 2008}}</ref> Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have been changed by maceration.<ref name="Tsien1985" />
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The word "paper" is etymologically derived from Latin ''papyrus'', which comes from the Greek πάπυρος (''papuros''), the word for the ''Cyperus papyrus'' plant.<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpa%2Fpuros πάπυρος], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref><ref>[http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/papyrus#DWS-m-en_gb-msdict-00002%E2%80%93049928 papyrus], on Oxford Dictionaries</ref> [[Papyrus]] is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the ''Cyperus papyrus'' plant, which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for [[History of writing|writing]] before the introduction of paper into the Middle East and Europe.<ref>{{Cite Dictionary.com|papyrus|accessdate=20 November 2008}}</ref> Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have been changed by maceration.<ref name="Tsien1985" />
  
 
==Papermaking==
 
==Papermaking==
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{{Main|Papermaking}}
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===Chemical pulping===
 
===Chemical pulping===
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{{Main|kraft process|sulfite process|soda pulping}}
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To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres. This is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose; this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as [[wood-free paper]]s–not to be confused with [[tree-free paper]]; this is because they do not contain lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be [[bleaching of wood pulp|bleached]] to produce white paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres; chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.
  
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To make pulp from wood, a [[chemical pulping process]] separates [[lignin]] from [[cellulose]] fibres. This is accomplished by dissolving [[lignin]] in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the [[cellulose]]; this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as [[wood-free paper]]s–not to be confused with [[tree-free paper]]; this is because they do not contain lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be [[bleaching of wood pulp|bleached]] to produce white paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres; chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.
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[[File:PaperAutofluorescence.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The microscopic structure of paper: [[Micrograph]] of paper autofluorescing under ultraviolet illumination. The individual fibres in this sample are around 10 µm in diameter.]]
  
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[[File:PaperAutofluorescence.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The microscopic structure of paper: [[Micrograph]] of paper [[autofluorescence|autofluorescing]] under [[ultraviolet]] illumination. The individual fibres in this sample are around 10 [[micrometre|µm]] in diameter.]]
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There are three main chemical pulping processes: the sulfite process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. The kraft process, invented in the 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most commonly practiced strategy, one of its advantages is the chemical reaction with lignin, that produces heat, which can be used to run a generator. Most pulping operations using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents. Soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content.
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There are three main chemical pulping processes: the [[sulfite process]] dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. The [[kraft process]], invented in the 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most commonly practiced strategy, one of its advantages is the chemical reaction with lignin, that produces heat, which can be used to run a generator. Most pulping operations using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents. [[Soda pulping]] is another specialty process used to pulp [[straw]]s, [[bagasse]] and [[hardwoods]] with high [[silicate]] content.
 
  
 
===Mechanical pulping===
 
===Mechanical pulping===
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There are two major mechanical pulps: thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres. Mechanical pulping does not remove the [[lignin]], so the yield is very high, >95%, however it causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper. Although large amounts of [[electrical energy]] are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.
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There are two major mechanical pulps: thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, however it causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.
  
 
===De-inked pulp===
 
===De-inked pulp===
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[[Paper recycling]] processes can use either chemically or mechanically produced pulp; by mixing it with water and applying mechanical action the [[hydrogen]] bonds in the paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre for the sake of quality; generally speaking, de-inked pulp is of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from.
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Paper recycling processes can use either chemically or mechanically produced pulp; by mixing it with water and applying mechanical action the hydrogen bonds in the paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre for the sake of quality; generally speaking, de-inked pulp is of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from.
  
 
There are three main classifications of recycled fibre:.
 
There are three main classifications of recycled fibre:.
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===Additives===
 
===Additives===
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Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as [[chalk]] or [[china clay]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SHiQAAAAIAAJ&q=pulps+may+contain+fillers+such+as+chalk+or+china+clay&dq=pulps+may+contain+fillers+such+as+chalk+or+china+clay&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjs0pmchdHUAhUU6WMKHQOUCNgQ6AEIJDAA|title=Appropriate Technology|date=1996|publisher=Intermediate Technology Publications.|language=en}}</ref> which improve its characteristics for printing or writing.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zp0_a909uyIC&pg=PA203&dq=Besides+the+fibres,+paper+pulps+may+contain+fillers+such+as+chalk+or+china+clay,+which+improve+its+characteristics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjGpu7pp_rWAhXL31QKHaHlB9wQ6AEIMzAC|title=Applications of Wet-End Paper Chemistry|last=Thorn|first=Ian|last2=Au|first2=Che On|date=2009-07-24|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781402060380|language=en}}</ref> Additives for [[sizing]] purposes may be mixed with it or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; the purpose of such sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit ink or paint.
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Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SHiQAAAAIAAJ&q=pulps+may+contain+fillers+such+as+chalk+or+china+clay&dq=pulps+may+contain+fillers+such+as+chalk+or+china+clay&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjs0pmchdHUAhUU6WMKHQOUCNgQ6AEIJDAA|title=Appropriate Technology|date=1996|publisher=Intermediate Technology Publications.|language=en}}</ref> which improve its characteristics for printing or writing.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zp0_a909uyIC&pg=PA203&dq=Besides+the+fibres,+paper+pulps+may+contain+fillers+such+as+chalk+or+china+clay,+which+improve+its+characteristics&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjGpu7pp_rWAhXL31QKHaHlB9wQ6AEIMzAC|title=Applications of Wet-End Paper Chemistry|last=Thorn|first=Ian|last2=Au|first2=Che On|date=2009-07-24|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781402060380|language=en}}</ref> Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed with it or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; the purpose of such sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit ink or paint.
  
 
===Producing paper===
 
===Producing paper===
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{{Main|Paper machine|papermaking}}
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The pulp is fed to a paper machine where it is formed as a paper web and the water is removed from it by pressing and drying.
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The [[Pulp (paper)|pulp]] is fed to a paper machine where it is formed as a paper web and the water is removed from it by pressing and drying.
 
  
 
Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.
 
Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.
  
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Drying involves using air or heat to remove water from the paper sheets. In the earliest days of paper making, this was done by hanging the sheets like laundry; in more modern times, various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine, the most common is the steam-heated can dryer. These can reach temperatures above {{convert|200|F|C}} and are used in long sequences of more than forty cans where the heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than six percent moisture.
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Drying involves using air or heat to remove water from the paper sheets. In the earliest days of paper making, this was done by hanging the sheets like laundry; in more modern times, various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine, the most common is the steam-heated can dryer. These can reach temperatures above 200 °F (93 °C) and are used in long sequences of more than forty cans where the heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than six percent moisture.
  
 
===Finishing===
 
===Finishing===
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The paper may then undergo [[sizing]] to alter its physical properties for use in various applications.
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The paper may then undergo sizing to alter its physical properties for use in various applications.
  
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Paper at this point is ''uncoated''. [[Coated paper]] has a thin layer of material such as [[calcium carbonate]] or [[china clay]] applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution [[halftone]] screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by [[calender]]ing. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest [[optical density]] in the printed image.
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Paper at this point is ''uncoated''. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed image.
  
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The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet. [[Continuous stationery|Continuous form paper]] (or continuous stationery) is cut to width with holes punched at the edges, and folded into stacks.
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The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet. Continuous form paper (or continuous stationery) is cut to width with holes punched at the edges, and folded into stacks.
  
 
====Paper grain====
 
====Paper grain====
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All paper produced by paper machines as the [[Fourdrinier Machine]] are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, [[watermark]]s and wire patterns imitating hand-made ''laid'' paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.
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All paper produced by paper machines as the Fourdrinier Machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made ''laid'' paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.
  
 
Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.<ref>[http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/forgery/ "Document Doubles"] in a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada</ref>
 
Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.<ref>[http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/forgery/ "Document Doubles"] in a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada</ref>
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==Applications==
 
==Applications==
 
Paper can be produced with a wide variety of properties, depending on its intended use.
 
Paper can be produced with a wide variety of properties, depending on its intended use.
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*'''For representing value:''' [[paper money]], [[bank note]], [[cheque]], [[security]] (see ''[[security paper]]''), [[voucher]] and [[Ticket (admission)|ticket]]
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*'''For representing value:''' paper money, bank note, cheque, security (see ''security paper''), voucher and ticket
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*'''For [[Data storage device|storing information]]''': [[book]], [[notebook]], [[graph paper]], [[magazine]], [[newspaper]], [[art]], [[zine]], [[letter (message)|letter]]
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*'''For storing information''': book, [[notebook]], [[graph paper]], magazine, newspaper, art, zine, [[letter (message)|letter]]
 
*'''For personal use''': [[diary]], note to remind oneself, etc.; for temporary personal use: scratch paper
 
*'''For personal use''': [[diary]], note to remind oneself, etc.; for temporary personal use: scratch paper
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*'''For [[communication]]:''' between individuals and/or groups of people.
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*'''For communication:''' between individuals and/or groups of people.
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*'''For packaging:''' [[corrugated box]], [[paper bag]], [[envelope]], [[Packing & Wrapping Paper]], [[Paper string]], [[Charta emporetica]] and [[wallpaper]]
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*'''For packaging:''' corrugated box, paper bag, [[envelope]], Packing & Wrapping Paper, Paper string, Charta emporetica and wallpaper
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*'''For cleaning:''' [[toilet paper]], [[handkerchief]]s, [[paper towel]]s, [[facial tissue]] and [[cat litter]]
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*'''For cleaning:''' toilet paper, handkerchiefs, paper towels, facial tissue and cat litter
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*'''For construction:''' [[papier-mâché]], [[origami]], [[paper plane]]s, [[quilling]], [[paper honeycomb]], used as a core material in [[composite material]]s, [[paper engineering]], [[construction paper]] and [[paper clothing]]
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*'''For construction:''' papier-mâché, origami, paper planes, quilling, paper honeycomb, used as a core material in composite materials, paper engineering, construction paper and paper clothing
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*'''For other uses:''' [[emery paper]], [[sandpaper]], [[blotting paper]], [[litmus paper]], [[universal indicator]] paper, [[paper chromatography]], [[electrical insulation paper]] (see also ''[[dielectric]]'' and ''[[permittivity]]'') and [[filter paper]]
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*'''For other uses:''' [[emery paper]], sandpaper, [[blotting paper]], litmus paper, universal indicator paper, [[paper chromatography]], electrical insulation paper (see also ''dielectric'' and ''permittivity'') and filter paper
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It is estimated that paper-based storage solutions captured 0.33% of the total in 1986 and only 0.007% in 2007, even though in absolute terms, the world's capacity to store information on paper increased from 8.7 to 19.4 [[petabyte]]s.<ref name="HilbertLopez2011">[http://www.sciencemag.org/content/332/6025/60 "The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information"], especially [http://www.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2011/02/08/science.1200970.DC1/Hilbert-SOM.pdf Supporting online material], Martin Hilbert and Priscila López (2011), [[Science (journal)]], 332(6025), 60-65; free access to the article through here: martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html</ref> It is estimated that in 1986 paper-based postal letters represented less than 0.05% of the world's telecommunication capacity, with sharply decreasing tendency after the massive introduction of digital technologies.<ref name="HilbertLopez2011"/>
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It is estimated that paper-based storage solutions captured 0.33% of the total in 1986 and only 0.007% in 2007, even though in absolute terms, the world's capacity to store information on paper increased from 8.7 to 19.4 petabytes.<ref name="HilbertLopez2011">[http://www.sciencemag.org/content/332/6025/60 "The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information"], especially [http://www.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2011/02/08/science.1200970.DC1/Hilbert-SOM.pdf Supporting online material], Martin Hilbert and Priscila López (2011), Science (journal), 332(6025), 60-65; free access to the article through here: martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html</ref> It is estimated that in 1986 paper-based postal letters represented less than 0.05% of the world's telecommunication capacity, with sharply decreasing tendency after the massive introduction of digital technologies.<ref name="HilbertLopez2011"/>
  
 
==Types, thickness and weight==
 
==Types, thickness and weight==
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{{Main|Paper size|Grammage|Paper density}}
 
 
[[File:Coloured, textured craft card.jpg|thumb|right|Card and paper stock for [[crafts]] use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.]]
 
[[File:Coloured, textured craft card.jpg|thumb|right|Card and paper stock for [[crafts]] use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.]]
  
−
The thickness of paper is often measured by caliper, which is typically given in thousandths of an inch in the United States and in micrometers (µm) in the rest of the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.casepaper.com/calc_chart_caliper.htm|title=Paper Thickness Chart|website=Case Paper|language=en-US|access-date=2017-05-27}}</ref> Paper may be between {{convert|0.07|and|0.18|mm|in}} thick.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/JuliaSherlis.shtml|title=Thickness of a Piece of Paper|last=Elert|first=Glenn|website=The Physics Factbook|language=en|access-date=2017-05-27}}</ref>
+
The thickness of paper is often measured by caliper, which is typically given in thousandths of an inch in the United States and in micrometers (µm) in the rest of the world.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.casepaper.com/calc_chart_caliper.htm|title=Paper Thickness Chart|website=Case Paper|language=en-US|access-date=2017-05-27}}</ref> Paper may be between 0.07 and 0.18 millimetres (0.0028 and 0.0071 in) thick.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/JuliaSherlis.shtml|title=Thickness of a Piece of Paper|last=Elert|first=Glenn|website=The Physics Factbook|language=en|access-date=2017-05-27}}</ref>
  
−
Paper is often characterized by weight. In the United States, the weight assigned to a paper is the weight of a ream, 500 sheets, of varying "basic sizes", before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20&nbsp;lb, {{convert|8.5|x|11|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} paper weighs 5 pounds, because it has been cut from a larger sheet into four pieces.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/851074844|title=The Hammerhill guide to desktop publishing in business|last=McKenzie|first=Bruce G.|date=1989|publisher=Hammerhill|isbn=9780961565114|oclc=851074844|page=144}}</ref> In the United States, printing paper is generally 20&nbsp;lb, 24&nbsp;lb, or 32&nbsp;lb at most. [[Cover stock]] is generally 68&nbsp;lb, and 110&nbsp;lb or more is considered [[card stock]].
+
Paper is often characterized by weight. In the United States, the weight assigned to a paper is the weight of a ream, 500 sheets, of varying "basic sizes", before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20&nbsp;lb, {{convert|8.5|x|11|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} paper weighs 5 pounds, because it has been cut from a larger sheet into four pieces.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/851074844|title=The Hammerhill guide to desktop publishing in business|last=McKenzie|first=Bruce G.|date=1989|publisher=Hammerhill|isbn=9780961565114|oclc=851074844|page=144}}</ref> In the United States, printing paper is generally 20&nbsp;lb, 24&nbsp;lb, or 32&nbsp;lb at most. Cover stock is generally 68&nbsp;lb, and 110&nbsp;lb or more is considered card stock.
  
−
In Europe, and other regions using the [[ISO 216]] paper sizing system, the weight is expressed in grammes per square metre (g/m<sup>2</sup> or usually just g) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60&nbsp;g and 120&nbsp;g. Anything heavier than 160&nbsp;g is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness.
+
In Europe, and other regions using the ISO 216 paper sizing system, the weight is expressed in grammes per square metre (g/m<sup>2</sup> or usually just g) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60&nbsp;g and 120&nbsp;g. Anything heavier than 160&nbsp;g is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness.
  
−
Most commercial paper sold in North America is cut to standard paper sizes based on [[United States customary units|customary units]] and is defined by the length and width of a sheet of paper.
+
Most commercial paper sold in North America is cut to standard paper sizes based on customary units and is defined by the length and width of a sheet of paper.
  
−
The ISO 216 system used in most other countries is based on the surface area of a sheet of paper, not on a sheet's width and length. It was first adopted in Germany in 1922 and generally spread as nations adopted the metric system. The largest standard size paper is A0 (A zero), measuring one square meter (approx. 1189 &times; 841&nbsp;mm). A1 is half the size of a sheet of A0 (i.e., 594 mm &times; 841 mm), such that two sheets of A1 placed side by side are equal to one sheet of A0.  A2 is half the size of a sheet of A1, and so forth. Common sizes used in the office and the home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets).
+
The ISO 216 system used in most other countries is based on the surface area of a sheet of paper, not on a sheet's width and length. It was first adopted in Germany in 1922 and generally spread as nations adopted the metric system. The largest standard size paper is A0 (A zero), measuring one square meter (approx. 1189 &times; 841&nbsp;mm). A1 is half the size of a sheet of A0 (i.e., 594 mm &times; 841 mm), such that two sheets of A1 placed side by side are equal to one sheet of A0.  A2 is half the size of a sheet of A1, and so forth. Common sizes used in the office and the home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets)<ref>[https://unsharpen.com/paper-sizes/ Paper Sizes Explained]</ref>.
  
−
The [[density]] of paper ranges from {{convert|250|kg/m3|lb/ft3|0|abbr=on}} for tissue paper to {{convert|1500|kg/m3|lb/ft3|0|abbr=on}} for some speciality paper. Printing paper is about {{convert|800|kg/m3|lb/ft3|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paperonweb.com/density.htm|title=Density of paper and paperboard|publisher=PaperOnWeb|accessdate=31 October 2007}}</ref>
+
The density of paper ranges from {{convert|250|kg/m3|lb/ft3|0|abbr=on}} for tissue paper to {{convert|1500|kg/m3|lb/ft3|0|abbr=on}} for some speciality paper. Printing paper is about {{convert|800|kg/m3|lb/ft3|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paperonweb.com/density.htm|title=Density of paper and paperboard|publisher=PaperOnWeb|accessdate=31 October 2007}}</ref>
  
 
Paper may be classified into seven categories:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/959020143|title=The Thames and Hudson manual of bookbinding|last=Johnson|first=Arthur|date=1978|publisher=Thames and Hudson|location=London|oclc=959020143|language=en}}</ref>
 
Paper may be classified into seven categories:<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/959020143|title=The Thames and Hudson manual of bookbinding|last=Johnson|first=Arthur|date=1978|publisher=Thames and Hudson|location=London|oclc=959020143|language=en}}</ref>
Line 115: Line 108:
  
 
Some paper types include:
 
Some paper types include:
−
{{colbegin|3}}
+
*Bank paper
−
*[[Bank paper]]
+
*Banana paper
−
*[[Banana paper]]
+
*Bond paper
−
*[[Bond paper]]
+
*Book paper
−
*[[Book paper]]
+
*Coated paper: glossy and matte surface
−
*[[Coated paper]]: glossy and matte surface
+
*Construction paper/sugar paper
−
*[[Construction paper|Construction paper/sugar paper]]
+
*Cotton paper
−
*[[Cotton paper]]
+
*Fish paper (vulcanized fibres for electrical insulation)
−
*[[Fish paper]] ([[vulcanized]] fibres for electrical insulation)
+
*Inkjet paper
−
*[[Inkjet paper]]
+
*Kraft paper
−
*[[Kraft paper]]
+
*Laid paper
−
*[[Laid paper]]
+
*Leather paper
−
*[[Leather paper]]
+
*Mummy paper
−
*[[Mummy paper]]
+
*Oak tag paper
−
*[[Oak tag paper]]
+
*Sandpaper
−
*[[Sandpaper]]
+
*Tyvek paper
−
*[[Tyvek paper]]
+
*Wallpaper
−
*[[Wallpaper]]
+
*Washi
−
*[[Washi]]
+
*Waterproof paper
−
*[[Waterproof paper]]
+
*Wax paper
−
*[[Wax paper]]
+
*Wove paper
−
*[[Wove paper]]
+
*Xuan paper
−
*[[Xuan paper]]
 
−
{{colend}}
 
  
 
==Paper stability==
 
==Paper stability==
−
Much of the early paper made from wood pulp contained significant amounts of [[alum]], a variety of [[aluminium sulfate]] salts that is significantly [[acidic]]. Alum was added to paper to assist in [[sizing]],<ref name="bier">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/813399142|title=Essentials of pulping and papermaking|last=Biermann|first=Christopher J/|date=1993|publisher=Academic Press|location=San Diego|isbn=012097360X|oclc=813399142}}</ref> making it somewhat water resistant so that [[inks]] did not "run" or spread uncontrollably. Early papermakers did not realize that the alum they added liberally to cure almost every problem encountered in making their product would eventually be detrimental.<ref name="clark">{{cite book |last=Clark |first=James d'A. |authorlink= |title=Pulp Technology and Treatment for Paper |edition=2nd |date=1985 |publisher=Miller Freeman Publications |location=San Francisco |isbn=0-87930-164-3 }}</ref> The [[cellulose]] fibres that make up paper are [[hydrolyzed]] by acid, and the presence of alum would eventually degrade the fibres until the paper disintegrated in a process that has come to be known as "[[slow fires|slow fire]]". Documents written on [[Cotton paper|rag paper]] were significantly more stable. The use of non-acidic additives to make paper is becoming more prevalent, and the stability of these papers is less of an issue.
+
Much of the early paper made from wood pulp contained significant amounts of alum, a variety of aluminium sulfate salts that is significantly acidic. Alum was added to paper to assist in sizing,<ref name="bier">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/813399142|title=Essentials of pulping and papermaking|last=Biermann|first=Christopher J/|date=1993|publisher=Academic Press|location=San Diego|isbn=012097360X|oclc=813399142}}</ref> making it somewhat water resistant so that inks did not "run" or spread uncontrollably. Early papermakers did not realize that the alum they added liberally to cure almost every problem encountered in making their product would eventually be detrimental.<ref name="clark">{{cite book |last=Clark |first=James d'A. |authorlink= |title=Pulp Technology and Treatment for Paper |edition=2nd |date=1985 |publisher=Miller Freeman Publications |location=San Francisco |isbn=0-87930-164-3 }}</ref> The cellulose fibres that make up paper are hydrolyzed by acid, and the presence of alum would eventually degrade the fibres until the paper disintegrated in a process that has come to be known as "slow fire". Documents written on rag paper were significantly more stable. The use of non-acidic additives to make paper is becoming more prevalent, and the stability of these papers is less of an issue.
  
−
Paper made from [[pulp mill#The mill|mechanical pulp]] contains significant amounts of [[lignin]], a major component in wood. In the presence of light and oxygen, lignin reacts to give yellow materials,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fabbri | first1 = Claudia | last2 = Bietti | first2 = Massimo | last3 = Lanzalunga | first3 = Osvaldo | year = | title = Generation and Reactivity of Ketyl Radicals with Lignin Related Structures. On the Importance of the Ketyl Pathway in the Photoyellowing of Lignin Containing Pulps and Papers | url = | journal = J. Org. Chem | volume = 2005 | issue = 70| pages = 2720–2728 | doi = 10.1021/jo047826u }}</ref> which is why [[newsprint]] and other mechanical paper yellows with age. Paper made from [[bleaching of wood pulp|bleached]] [[kraft process|kraft]] or [[sulfite process|sulfite]] pulps does not contain significant amounts of lignin and is therefore better suited for books, documents and other applications where whiteness of the paper is essential.
+
Paper made from mechanical pulp contains significant amounts of lignin, a major component in wood. In the presence of light and oxygen, lignin reacts to give yellow materials,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fabbri | first1 = Claudia | last2 = Bietti | first2 = Massimo | last3 = Lanzalunga | first3 = Osvaldo | year = | title = Generation and Reactivity of Ketyl Radicals with Lignin Related Structures. On the Importance of the Ketyl Pathway in the Photoyellowing of Lignin Containing Pulps and Papers | url = | journal = J. Org. Chem | volume = 2005 | issue = 70| pages = 2720–2728 | doi = 10.1021/jo047826u }}</ref> which is why newsprint and other mechanical paper yellows with age. Paper made from bleached kraft or sulfite pulps does not contain significant amounts of lignin and is therefore better suited for books, documents and other applications where whiteness of the paper is essential.
  
 
Paper made from wood pulp is not necessarily less durable than a rag paper. The aging behavior of a paper is determined by its manufacture, not the original source of the fibers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Erhardt | first1 = D. | last2 = Tumosa | first2 = C. | year = 2005 | title = Chemical Degradation of Cellulose in Paper over 500 years | url = | journal = Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material | volume = 26 | issue = | page = 155 | doi=10.1515/rest.2005.26.3.151}}</ref> Furthermore, tests sponsored by the Library of Congress prove that all paper is at risk of acid decay, because cellulose itself produces formic, acetic, lactic and oxalic acids.<ref>
 
Paper made from wood pulp is not necessarily less durable than a rag paper. The aging behavior of a paper is determined by its manufacture, not the original source of the fibers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Erhardt | first1 = D. | last2 = Tumosa | first2 = C. | year = 2005 | title = Chemical Degradation of Cellulose in Paper over 500 years | url = | journal = Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material | volume = 26 | issue = | page = 155 | doi=10.1515/rest.2005.26.3.151}}</ref> Furthermore, tests sponsored by the Library of Congress prove that all paper is at risk of acid decay, because cellulose itself produces formic, acetic, lactic and oxalic acids.<ref>
Line 150: Line 141:
 
     | url = http://www.loc.gov/preservation/care/deterioratebrochure.html
 
     | url = http://www.loc.gov/preservation/care/deterioratebrochure.html
 
     | accessdate = 7 January 2015
 
     | accessdate = 7 January 2015
−
     | publisher = [[Library of Congress]]
+
     | publisher = Library of Congress
 
     | quote = Research by the Library of Congress has demonstrated that cellulose itself generates acids as it ages, including formic, acetic, lactic, and oxalic acids
 
     | quote = Research by the Library of Congress has demonstrated that cellulose itself generates acids as it ages, including formic, acetic, lactic, and oxalic acids
 
     | ref = refDeteriorationOfPaper
 
     | ref = refDeteriorationOfPaper
Line 156: Line 147:
 
</ref>
 
</ref>
  
−
Mechanical pulping yields almost a tonne of pulp per tonne of dry wood used, which is why mechanical pulps are sometimes referred to as "high yield" pulps. With almost twice the yield as chemical pulping, mechanical pulps is often cheaper. Mass-market paperback books and newspapers tend to use mechanical papers. Book publishers tend to use [[acid-free paper]], made from fully bleached chemical pulps for [[hardback]] and [[Paperback#Trade paperback|trade paperback]] books.
+
Mechanical pulping yields almost a tonne of pulp per tonne of dry wood used, which is why mechanical pulps are sometimes referred to as "high yield" pulps. With almost twice the yield as chemical pulping, mechanical pulps is often cheaper. Mass-market paperback books and newspapers tend to use mechanical papers. Book publishers tend to use acid-free paper, made from fully bleached chemical pulps for hardback and trade paperback books.
  
 
== Environmental impact ==
 
== Environmental impact ==
−
{{Main|Environmental impact of paper|Deforestation}}
 
−
 
 
The production and use of paper has a number of adverse effects on the environment.
 
The production and use of paper has a number of adverse effects on the environment.
  
−
Worldwide consumption of paper has risen by 400% in the past 40 years leading to increase in [[deforestation]], with 35% of harvested trees being used for paper manufacture. Most paper companies also plant trees to help regrow forests. Logging of [[old growth forest]]s accounts for less than 10% of wood pulp,<ref name="chase">{{cite web |url=http://www.ecology.com/feature-stories/paper-chase/index.html |title=Paper Chase |accessdate=21 September 2007 |last=Martin |first=Sam |date=2004 |work= |publisher=Ecology Communications, Inc. |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070619104819/http://www.ecology.com/feature-stories/paper-chase/index.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 19 June 2007}}</ref> but is one of the most controversial issues.
+
Worldwide consumption of paper has risen by 400% in the past 40 years leading to increase in deforestation, with 35% of harvested trees being used for paper manufacture. Most paper companies also plant trees to help regrow forests. Logging of old growth forests accounts for less than 10% of wood pulp,<ref name="chase">{{cite web |url=http://www.ecology.com/feature-stories/paper-chase/index.html |title=Paper Chase |accessdate=21 September 2007 |last=Martin |first=Sam |date=2004 |work= |publisher=Ecology Communications, Inc. |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070619104819/http://www.ecology.com/feature-stories/paper-chase/index.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 19 June 2007}}</ref> but is one of the most controversial issues.
  
−
Paper waste accounts for up to 40% of total waste produced in the United States each year, which adds up to 71.6 million tons of paper waste per year in the United States alone.<ref>{{cite web|title=General Overview of What's In America's Trash |url=http://www.epa.gov/osw/wycd/catbook/what.htm |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |accessdate=4 April 2012 |author=EPA |date=28 June 2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105015733/http://www.epa.gov/osw/wycd/catbook/what.htm |archivedate=5 January 2012 |df= }}</ref> The average office worker in the US prints 31 pages every day.<ref>Groll, T. 2015 [http://www.zeit.de/karriere/2015-06/papier-enerige-sparen-unternehmen In vielen Büros wird unnötig viel ausgedruckt], Zeit Online, 20 June 2015.</ref> Americans also use in the order of 16 billion [[paper cup]]s per year.
+
Paper waste accounts for up to 40% of total waste produced in the United States each year, which adds up to 71.6 million tons of paper waste per year in the United States alone.<ref>{{cite web|title=General Overview of What's In America's Trash |url=http://www.epa.gov/osw/wycd/catbook/what.htm |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |accessdate=4 April 2012 |author=EPA |date=28 June 2006 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105015733/http://www.epa.gov/osw/wycd/catbook/what.htm |archivedate=5 January 2012 |df= }}</ref> The average office worker in the US prints 31 pages every day.<ref>Groll, T. 2015 [http://www.zeit.de/karriere/2015-06/papier-enerige-sparen-unternehmen In vielen Büros wird unnötig viel ausgedruckt], Zeit Online, 20 June 2015.</ref> Americans also use in the order of 16 billion paper cups per year.
  
−
Conventional bleaching of wood pulp using elemental chlorine produces and releases into the environment large amounts of [[organochloride|chlorinated organic compounds]], including chlorinated [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|dioxins]].<ref name="can">{{cite web |url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/contaminants/psl1-lsp1/pulp_mill_effluents_pate_blanchie/index_e.html |title=Effluents from Pulp Mills using Bleaching - PSL1 |accessdate=21 September 2007 |last= |first= |date=1991 |work={{ISBN|0-662-18734-2}} DSS |publisher=Health Canada}}</ref> Dioxins are recognized as a persistent environmental pollutant, regulated internationally by the [[Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants]]. Dioxins are highly toxic, and health effects on humans include reproductive, developmental, immune and hormonal problems. They are known to be carcinogenic. Over 90% of human exposure is through food, primarily meat, dairy, fish and shellfish, as dioxins accumulate in the food chain in the fatty tissue of animals.<ref>
+
Conventional bleaching of wood pulp using elemental chlorine produces and releases into the environment large amounts of chlorinated organic compounds, including chlorinated dioxins.<ref name="can">{{cite web |url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/contaminants/psl1-lsp1/pulp_mill_effluents_pate_blanchie/index_e.html |title=Effluents from Pulp Mills using Bleaching - PSL1 |accessdate=21 September 2007 |last= |first= |date=1991 |work={{ISBN|0-662-18734-2}} DSS |publisher=Health Canada}}</ref> Dioxins are recognized as a persistent environmental pollutant, regulated internationally by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Dioxins are highly toxic, and health effects on humans include reproductive, developmental, immune and hormonal problems. They are known to be carcinogenic. Over 90% of human exposure is through food, primarily meat, dairy, fish and shellfish, as dioxins accumulate in the food chain in the fatty tissue of animals.<ref>
 
   {{cite web
 
   {{cite web
 
     | title = Dioxins and their effects on human health
 
     | title = Dioxins and their effects on human health
Line 173: Line 162:
 
     | accessdate = 7 January 2015
 
     | accessdate = 7 January 2015
 
     | date = June 2014
 
     | date = June 2014
−
     | publisher = [[World Health Organization]]
+
     | publisher = World Health Organization
 
     | quote = More than 90% of human exposure is through food
 
     | quote = More than 90% of human exposure is through food
 
     | ref = refDioxinsEffectsHealth
 
     | ref = refDioxinsEffectsHealth
Line 182: Line 171:
 
Some manufacturers have started using a new, significantly more environmentally friendly alternative to expanded plastic packaging. Made out of paper, and known commercially as PaperFoam, the new packaging has mechanical properties very similar to those of some expanded plastic packaging, but is biodegradable and can also be recycled with ordinary paper.<ref>[http://www.paperfoam.com/ PaperFoam Carbon Friendly Packaging]</ref>
 
Some manufacturers have started using a new, significantly more environmentally friendly alternative to expanded plastic packaging. Made out of paper, and known commercially as PaperFoam, the new packaging has mechanical properties very similar to those of some expanded plastic packaging, but is biodegradable and can also be recycled with ordinary paper.<ref>[http://www.paperfoam.com/ PaperFoam Carbon Friendly Packaging]</ref>
  
−
With increasing environmental concerns about synthetic coatings (such as [[PFOA]]) and the higher prices of hydrocarbon based petrochemicals, there is a focus on [[zein]] (corn protein) as a coating for paper in high grease applications such as popcorn bags.<ref>[http://v3.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=WO2006002346&F=0 Barrier compositions and articles produced with the compositions cross-reference to related application]</ref>
+
With increasing environmental concerns about synthetic coatings (such as PFOA) and the higher prices of hydrocarbon based petrochemicals, there is a focus on zein (corn protein) as a coating for paper in high grease applications such as popcorn bags.<ref>[http://v3.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=WO2006002346&F=0 Barrier compositions and articles produced with the compositions cross-reference to related application]</ref>
  
−
Also, synthetics such as [[Tyvek]] and [[Teslin (material)|Teslin]] have been introduced as printing media as a more durable material than paper.
+
Also, synthetics such as Tyvek and Teslin have been introduced as printing media as a more durable material than paper.
  
−
== See also ==
 
−
{{colbegin|3}}
 
−
*[[Arches paper]]
 
−
*[[Buckypaper]]
 
−
*[[continuous stationery|Continuous form paper]] (or "continuous stationery")
 
−
*[[Deinked pulp]]
 
−
*[[Environmental impact of paper]]
 
−
*[[Fibre crop]]
 
−
*[[Graphene oxide paper]]
 
−
*[[Lokta paper]]
 
−
*[[Mass deacidification]]
 
−
*[[Origami]]
 
−
*[[Paper and ink testing]]
 
−
*[[Paper armour]]
 
−
*[[Paper chemicals]]
 
−
*[[Paper craft]]
 
−
*[[Paper engineering]]
 
−
*[[Paper recycling]]
 
−
*[[Paper size]], [[sizing]]
 
−
*[[Paper towels]]
 
−
*[[papier (disambiguation)|Papier]] "paper" in French or German
 
−
*[[Papier-mâché]]
 
−
*[[Papyrus]]
 
−
*[[Parchment paper]], a form of paper made to emulate the texture of animal-based [[parchment]]
 
−
*[[Roll hardness tester]]
 
−
*[[Security paper]]
 
−
*[[Seed paper]]
 
−
*[[Toilet paper]]
 
−
*[[Pulp (paper)|Wood pulp]]
 
−
{{colend}}
 
  
 
== Notes ==
 
== Notes ==
Line 224: Line 183:
 
  | last = Burns
 
  | last = Burns
 
  | first = Robert I.
 
  | first = Robert I.
−
  | editor-last = Lindgren  
+
  | editor-last = Lindgren
−
  | editor-first = Uta  
+
  | editor-first = Uta
 
  | contribution = Paper comes to the West, 800−1400
 
  | contribution = Paper comes to the West, 800−1400
 
  | title = Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation
 
  | title = Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation
Line 231: Line 190:
 
  | date = 1996
 
  | date = 1996
 
  | publisher = Gebr. Mann Verlag
 
  | publisher = Gebr. Mann Verlag
−
  | location = Berlin  
+
  | location = Berlin
 
  | isbn = 3-7861-1748-9
 
  | isbn = 3-7861-1748-9
 
  | pages = 413–422
 
  | pages = 413–422
Line 237: Line 196:
 
  | postscript = <!--None-->
 
  | postscript = <!--None-->
 
}}
 
}}
−
*{{Cite journal |last=Tsien |first=Tsuen-Hsuin |authorlink=Tsien Tsuen-hsuin |series=[[Joseph Needham]], |journal=Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology |volume= 5 part 1 |title=Paper and Printing |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1985|ref=harv|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}
+
*{{Cite journal |last=Tsien |first=Tsuen-Hsuin |authorlink=Tsien Tsuen-hsuin |series=Joseph Needham, |journal=Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology |volume= 5 part 1 |title=Paper and Printing |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1985|ref=harv|postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}
 
*"Document Doubles" in [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/forgery/ Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery], a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
 
*"Document Doubles" in [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/forgery/ Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery], a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
  
Line 244: Line 203:
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
−
{{wiktionary|paper}}
+
 
−
{{commons category|Paper}}
 
 
*[http://www.tappi.org Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry] (TAPPI) official website
 
*[http://www.tappi.org Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry] (TAPPI) official website
−
* {{britannica|441928}}
+
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mpapermaking.html ''How is paper made?''] at The Straight Dope, 22 November 2005
−
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mpapermaking.html ''How is paper made?''] at The [[Straight Dope]], 22 November 2005
+
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E4C3X26dxbM Thirteen-minute video on modern paper production system], from Sappi
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*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E4C3X26dxbM Thirteen-minute video on modern paper production system], from [[Sappi]]
 
  
  
 
[[Category:Paper]]
 
[[Category:Paper]]

Latest revision as of 21:48, 24 April 2021

Paper products: Book, tissue paper, Ruled paper, carton, egg box


Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a versatile material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial and construction processes.

The pulp papermaking process is said to have been developed in China during the early 2nd century CE, possibly as early as the year 105 CE,[1] by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BCE in China.[2] The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production and the United States right behind it.

History[edit]

Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BC.

The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BCE in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century CE Han court eunuch.[2]

Its knowledge and uses spread from China through the Middle East to medieval Europe in the 13th century, where the first water powered paper mills were built.[3] Because of paper's introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called bagdatikos.[4] In the 19th century, industrialization greatly reduced the cost of manufacturing paper. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.[5]

Early sources of fibre[edit]

Ancient Sanskrit on Hemp based Paper. Hemp Fibre was commonly used in the production of paper from 200 BCE to the Late 1800's.

Before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton.[6] A process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774.[6] Today this method is called deinking. It was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers.[6]

Etymology[edit]

Template:Further

The word "paper" is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος (papuros), the word for the Cyperus papyrus plant.[7][8] Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for writing before the introduction of paper into the Middle East and Europe.[9] Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have been changed by maceration.[2]

Papermaking[edit]

Chemical pulping[edit]

To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres. This is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose; this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with tree-free paper; this is because they do not contain lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres; chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.

The microscopic structure of paper: Micrograph of paper autofluorescing under ultraviolet illumination. The individual fibres in this sample are around 10 µm in diameter.

There are three main chemical pulping processes: the sulfite process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. The kraft process, invented in the 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most commonly practiced strategy, one of its advantages is the chemical reaction with lignin, that produces heat, which can be used to run a generator. Most pulping operations using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents. Soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content.

Mechanical pulping[edit]

There are two major mechanical pulps: thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, however it causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.

De-inked pulp[edit]

Paper recycling processes can use either chemically or mechanically produced pulp; by mixing it with water and applying mechanical action the hydrogen bonds in the paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre for the sake of quality; generally speaking, de-inked pulp is of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from.

There are three main classifications of recycled fibre:.

  • Mill broke or internal mill waste – This incorporates any substandard or grade-change paper made within the paper mill itself, which then goes back into the manufacturing system to be re-pulped back into paper. Such out-of-specification paper is not sold and is therefore often not classified as genuine reclaimed recycled fibre, however most paper mills have been reusing their own waste fibre for many years, long before recycling became popular.
  • Preconsumer waste – This is offcut and processing waste, such as guillotine trims and envelope blank waste; it is generated outside the paper mill and could potentially go to landfill, and is a genuine recycled fibre source; it includes de-inked preconsumer (recycled material that has been printed but did not reach its intended end use, such as waste from printers and unsold publications).[10]
  • Postconsumer waste – This is fibre from paper that has been used for its intended end use and includes office waste, magazine papers and newsprint. As the vast majority of this material has been printed – either digitally or by more conventional means such as lithography or rotogravure – it will either be recycled as printed paper or go through a de-inking process first.

Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp, although they are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from the latter.

Additives[edit]

Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay,[11] which improve its characteristics for printing or writing.[12] Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed with it or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; the purpose of such sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit ink or paint.

Producing paper[edit]

The pulp is fed to a paper machine where it is formed as a paper web and the water is removed from it by pressing and drying.

Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.

Drying involves using air or heat to remove water from the paper sheets. In the earliest days of paper making, this was done by hanging the sheets like laundry; in more modern times, various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine, the most common is the steam-heated can dryer. These can reach temperatures above 200 °F (93 °C) and are used in long sequences of more than forty cans where the heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than six percent moisture.

Finishing[edit]

The paper may then undergo sizing to alter its physical properties for use in various applications.

Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed image.

The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet. Continuous form paper (or continuous stationery) is cut to width with holes punched at the edges, and folded into stacks.

Paper grain[edit]

All paper produced by paper machines as the Fourdrinier Machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made laid paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.

Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.[13]

Applications[edit]

Paper can be produced with a wide variety of properties, depending on its intended use.

  • For representing value: paper money, bank note, cheque, security (see security paper), voucher and ticket
  • For storing information: book, notebook, graph paper, magazine, newspaper, art, zine, letter
  • For personal use: diary, note to remind oneself, etc.; for temporary personal use: scratch paper
  • For communication: between individuals and/or groups of people.
  • For packaging: corrugated box, paper bag, envelope, Packing & Wrapping Paper, Paper string, Charta emporetica and wallpaper
  • For cleaning: toilet paper, handkerchiefs, paper towels, facial tissue and cat litter
  • For construction: papier-mâché, origami, paper planes, quilling, paper honeycomb, used as a core material in composite materials, paper engineering, construction paper and paper clothing
  • For other uses: emery paper, sandpaper, blotting paper, litmus paper, universal indicator paper, paper chromatography, electrical insulation paper (see also dielectric and permittivity) and filter paper

It is estimated that paper-based storage solutions captured 0.33% of the total in 1986 and only 0.007% in 2007, even though in absolute terms, the world's capacity to store information on paper increased from 8.7 to 19.4 petabytes.[14] It is estimated that in 1986 paper-based postal letters represented less than 0.05% of the world's telecommunication capacity, with sharply decreasing tendency after the massive introduction of digital technologies.[14]

Types, thickness and weight[edit]

Card and paper stock for crafts use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.

The thickness of paper is often measured by caliper, which is typically given in thousandths of an inch in the United States and in micrometers (µm) in the rest of the world.[15] Paper may be between 0.07 and 0.18 millimetres (0.0028 and 0.0071 in) thick.[16]

Paper is often characterized by weight. In the United States, the weight assigned to a paper is the weight of a ream, 500 sheets, of varying "basic sizes", before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20 lb, Template:Convert paper weighs 5 pounds, because it has been cut from a larger sheet into four pieces.[17] In the United States, printing paper is generally 20 lb, 24 lb, or 32 lb at most. Cover stock is generally 68 lb, and 110 lb or more is considered card stock.

In Europe, and other regions using the ISO 216 paper sizing system, the weight is expressed in grammes per square metre (g/m2 or usually just g) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60 g and 120 g. Anything heavier than 160 g is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness.

Most commercial paper sold in North America is cut to standard paper sizes based on customary units and is defined by the length and width of a sheet of paper.

The ISO 216 system used in most other countries is based on the surface area of a sheet of paper, not on a sheet's width and length. It was first adopted in Germany in 1922 and generally spread as nations adopted the metric system. The largest standard size paper is A0 (A zero), measuring one square meter (approx. 1189 × 841 mm). A1 is half the size of a sheet of A0 (i.e., 594 mm × 841 mm), such that two sheets of A1 placed side by side are equal to one sheet of A0. A2 is half the size of a sheet of A1, and so forth. Common sizes used in the office and the home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets)[18].

The density of paper ranges from Template:Convert for tissue paper to Template:Convert for some speciality paper. Printing paper is about Template:Convert.[19]

Paper may be classified into seven categories:[20]

  • Printing papers of wide variety.
  • Wrapping papers for the protection of goods and merchandise. This includes wax and kraft papers.
  • Writing paper suitable for stationery requirements. This includes ledger, bank, and bond paper.
  • Blotting papers containing little or no size.
  • Drawing papers usually with rough surfaces used by artists and designers, including cartridge paper.
  • Handmade papers including most decorative papers, Ingres papers, Japanese paper and tissues, all characterized by lack of grain direction.
  • Specialty papers including cigarette paper, toilet tissue, and other industrial papers.

Some paper types include:

  • Bank paper
  • Banana paper
  • Bond paper
  • Book paper
  • Coated paper: glossy and matte surface
  • Construction paper/sugar paper
  • Cotton paper
  • Fish paper (vulcanized fibres for electrical insulation)
  • Inkjet paper
  • Kraft paper
  • Laid paper
  • Leather paper
  • Mummy paper
  • Oak tag paper
  • Sandpaper
  • Tyvek paper
  • Wallpaper
  • Washi
  • Waterproof paper
  • Wax paper
  • Wove paper
  • Xuan paper

Paper stability[edit]

Much of the early paper made from wood pulp contained significant amounts of alum, a variety of aluminium sulfate salts that is significantly acidic. Alum was added to paper to assist in sizing,[21] making it somewhat water resistant so that inks did not "run" or spread uncontrollably. Early papermakers did not realize that the alum they added liberally to cure almost every problem encountered in making their product would eventually be detrimental.[22] The cellulose fibres that make up paper are hydrolyzed by acid, and the presence of alum would eventually degrade the fibres until the paper disintegrated in a process that has come to be known as "slow fire". Documents written on rag paper were significantly more stable. The use of non-acidic additives to make paper is becoming more prevalent, and the stability of these papers is less of an issue.

Paper made from mechanical pulp contains significant amounts of lignin, a major component in wood. In the presence of light and oxygen, lignin reacts to give yellow materials,[23] which is why newsprint and other mechanical paper yellows with age. Paper made from bleached kraft or sulfite pulps does not contain significant amounts of lignin and is therefore better suited for books, documents and other applications where whiteness of the paper is essential.

Paper made from wood pulp is not necessarily less durable than a rag paper. The aging behavior of a paper is determined by its manufacture, not the original source of the fibers.[24] Furthermore, tests sponsored by the Library of Congress prove that all paper is at risk of acid decay, because cellulose itself produces formic, acetic, lactic and oxalic acids.[25]

Mechanical pulping yields almost a tonne of pulp per tonne of dry wood used, which is why mechanical pulps are sometimes referred to as "high yield" pulps. With almost twice the yield as chemical pulping, mechanical pulps is often cheaper. Mass-market paperback books and newspapers tend to use mechanical papers. Book publishers tend to use acid-free paper, made from fully bleached chemical pulps for hardback and trade paperback books.

Environmental impact[edit]

The production and use of paper has a number of adverse effects on the environment.

Worldwide consumption of paper has risen by 400% in the past 40 years leading to increase in deforestation, with 35% of harvested trees being used for paper manufacture. Most paper companies also plant trees to help regrow forests. Logging of old growth forests accounts for less than 10% of wood pulp,[26] but is one of the most controversial issues.

Paper waste accounts for up to 40% of total waste produced in the United States each year, which adds up to 71.6 million tons of paper waste per year in the United States alone.[27] The average office worker in the US prints 31 pages every day.[28] Americans also use in the order of 16 billion paper cups per year.

Conventional bleaching of wood pulp using elemental chlorine produces and releases into the environment large amounts of chlorinated organic compounds, including chlorinated dioxins.[29] Dioxins are recognized as a persistent environmental pollutant, regulated internationally by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Dioxins are highly toxic, and health effects on humans include reproductive, developmental, immune and hormonal problems. They are known to be carcinogenic. Over 90% of human exposure is through food, primarily meat, dairy, fish and shellfish, as dioxins accumulate in the food chain in the fatty tissue of animals.[30]

Future[edit]

Some manufacturers have started using a new, significantly more environmentally friendly alternative to expanded plastic packaging. Made out of paper, and known commercially as PaperFoam, the new packaging has mechanical properties very similar to those of some expanded plastic packaging, but is biodegradable and can also be recycled with ordinary paper.[31]

With increasing environmental concerns about synthetic coatings (such as PFOA) and the higher prices of hydrocarbon based petrochemicals, there is a focus on zein (corn protein) as a coating for paper in high grease applications such as popcorn bags.[32]

Also, synthetics such as Tyvek and Teslin have been introduced as printing media as a more durable material than paper.


Notes[edit]

  1. ↑ Hogben, Lancelot. "Printing, Paper and Playing Cards". Bennett, Paul A. (ed.) Books and Printing: A Treasury for Typophiles. New York: The World Publishing Company, 1951. pp. 15–31. p. 17. & Mann, George. Print: A Manual for Librarians and Students Describing in Detail the History, Methods, and Applications of Printing and Paper Making. London: Grafton & Co., 1952. p. 77
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Template:Harvnb
  3. ↑ Template:Harvnb
  4. ↑ Murray, Stuart A. P. The Library: An illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing, 2009, p. 57.
  5. ↑ (Peter Burger), pg.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 (Fapet Oy), pg.
  7. ↑ πάπυρος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
  8. ↑ papyrus, on Oxford Dictionaries
  9. ↑ Template:Cite Dictionary.com
  10. ↑ Natural Resource Defense Council
  11. ↑ (Intermediate Technology Publications.), pg.
  12. ↑ (Springer Science & Business Media), pg.
  13. ↑ "Document Doubles" in a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "The World’s Technological Capacity to Store, Communicate, and Compute Information", especially Supporting online material, Martin Hilbert and Priscila López (2011), Science (journal), 332(6025), 60-65; free access to the article through here: martinhilbert.net/WorldInfoCapacity.html
  15. ↑ Paper Thickness Chart, .
  16. ↑ Thickness of a Piece of Paper, .
  17. ↑ (Hammerhill), pg. 144
  18. ↑ Paper Sizes Explained
  19. ↑ Density of paper and paperboard, .
  20. ↑ (Thames and Hudson), pg.
  21. ↑ (Academic Press), pg.
  22. ↑ (Miller Freeman Publications), pg.
  23. ↑ Fabbri, Claudia; Bietti, Massimo; Lanzalunga, Osvaldo. "Template:Link". J. Org. Chem 2005 (70): 2720–2728. doi:10.1021/jo047826u. 
  24. ↑ Erhardt, D.; Tumosa, C. (2005). "Template:Link". Restaurator: International Journal for the Preservation of Library and Archival Material 26: 155. doi:10.1515/rest.2005.26.3.151. 
  25. ↑ "Research by the Library of Congress has demonstrated that cellulose itself generates acids as it ages, including formic, acetic, lactic, and oxalic acids" — The Deterioration and Preservation of Paper: Some Essential Facts, .
  26. ↑ Paper Chase, .
  27. ↑ EPA, General Overview of What's In America's Trash, .
  28. ↑ Groll, T. 2015 In vielen Büros wird unnötig viel ausgedruckt, Zeit Online, 20 June 2015.
  29. ↑ Effluents from Pulp Mills using Bleaching - PSL1, .
  30. ↑ "More than 90% of human exposure is through food" — Dioxins and their effects on human health, .
  31. ↑ PaperFoam Carbon Friendly Packaging
  32. ↑ Barrier compositions and articles produced with the compositions cross-reference to related application

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

  • Alexander Monro, The Paper Trail: An Unexpected History of the World's Greatest Invention, Allen Lane, 2014

External links[edit]

Retrieved from ‘https://stationery.wiki/index.php?title=Paper&oldid=10371’